RESEARCH CRITIQUE
ABSTRACT
Purpose of the study is to review and evaluate
the qualitative nature of the research “Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the
Acquisition of a Teacher’s Knowledge” by Paul G. Schempp.” The article is an
interpretative case study to examine criteria used by an experienced teacher to
acquired knowledge in his field of expertise. Experienced Physical Education
teachers, Bob and Kathy are the key informants in this study. Data were
collected in various methods of qualitative techniques included participant
observation, artifact and document analysis, stimulated recall using videotaped
classes, and interviews. Besides, other school personnel included students,
teachers and administrators were also involved in this study. Specific strategies
were employed in the process of analyzing data included triangulation of
methods, member checks and constant use of follow up interviews in order to
ensure the data trustworthiness. The data analysis process involved summarizing
data into themes and categories using procedures recommended by Miles and
Huberman (1984), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1980) took approximately
one year to accomplish. Shulams’(1987) theory of knowledge base for teaching
was used to describe the forms of knowledge Bob acquired in pursuit of his
professional practice. In the final step, the researcher presented a copy of
the report to the informant, Bob for his comments and reactions to ensure the
accuracy of data (reliability) and validate the findings of the report.
INTRODUCTION
Twenty first century’s education system is
being transformed by the dramatic technological revolution. Students are grown
up in the rapidly changing media-saturated world. As a teacher who are
responsible to facilitate the next generation, understanding and improving the
skills of acquire knowledge is essential and crucial. The purpose of
educational research is to provide descriptive, predictive, or explanative information
with the goal of improving learning. This research topic is significant for
educators who are responsible in molding our next generation by maintaining
their profession.
Karl Popper (1972), described three worlds
of knowledge: World 1, knowledge of physical and real-world objects and
experiences; World 2, individuals’ knowledge and skills; and World 3, shared
ideas treatable as public objects that can be stored and accumulated.
According to James Hiebert, Ronald Gallimore, and James W. Stigler in
the study of “ A Knowledge base for teaching profession” ( 2002) , most American
teachers live in Popper’s World 1 and 2, they interact with their students and
create knowledge for themselves. But building a profession’s knowledge for
teaching requires teachers live in World 3 that allows ideas for teaching being
shared and examined publicly hence can be stored and accumulated to the next
generation.
In this qualitative study, the informant,
Bob has constructed a comfortable set of criteria to evaluate his daily
classroom operation and selecting knowledge based on years of contact with many
professional sources. These criteria formed a Screen through which all
potential pedagogical knowledge passed upon his perception of the power and
quality of its source.
REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Myriad amount of literature reviews is
evident in this article. The researcher was able to make connections between
the objectives and purpose of his paper with the appropriate selection of
literatures. For instance, data analyzing involving themes and categories using
procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), the construction of these
categories was influenced by Shuman’s (1987) theory of knowledge base for
teaching.
In analyzing the data, the researcher
categorized knowledge acquisition into five categories included classroom
organization and operation, teaching behavior, subject matter,
pedagogical-content knowledge and external conditions. Relevant literature
review were provided to support his study while discussing the above mentioned
five categories including Lang and Burroughs-Lange (1994), Russell and
Johnston(1988),Placek (1983), Wilson and Wineburg (1988) so on and so forth.
However, the researcher did not give any
argument or disagreements in any literature being reviewed. Most of his
literature reviews were merely to support his personal’s perspective throughout
the study. Skepticism and bias may occur when a statement is made from single
perspective without justification. The study would have been more comprehensive
if he could discuss and reflect his insights more in depth related to his
literature review.
METHODOLOGY
This is a year-long interpretive analytic
case study project to observe a high school Physical Education teacher. The
data were collected using variety of ethnographic techniques including
observation of participant, recorded artifact and document analyses, stimulated
recall using videotaped classes, and both formal and informal interviews. Ethnographic
research involves the collection and analysis of data about an individual or
group under natural conditions.
Spradley (1980) states that ethnography
means “learning from people” rather than “studying people”. In this study,
researcher recorded field notes during and after observation and summary
statement was made off site after each day of data collection in this
qualitative study. The data collection process began 2 days before the start of
school and ended before the Christmas break.
The researcher was present at the school on a daily basis on the first
month of the study and made field trips twice on average after that. On the
other hand, field notes were recorded during and after observation and a
summary statement was made off site after each day of data collection. Besides
that, the researcher used specific strategies such as triangulation methods and
member checks to ensure data trustworthiness.
In this study, the site was selected due to
its reputation which received an educational excellence award from the United
States Department of Education two years before the study. Hillcrest High
School has approximately 470 students. The school was awarded an educational
excellence from the United States Department of Education two years before the
study.
According to Cheryl Forchuk and Jacqueline
Roberts (1992), researcher must mention how the study sites were determined and
describe the selection of participants and their levels of participation. There
is no information given by the research on the strategies of selecting the site
and what are the specific criteria to select HHS school as the setting for his
study.
Cobb and Hagemaster (1987) stated that
particular informants (e.g. experienced teacher) can be purposely included for
their relevant knowledge or experience in a qualitative research, but these
must be described in detail. The participant (Bob) who has 14 years experiences
in physical education at Hillcrest High School was being selected in this study
but no information given by the researcher on the method and process of
selection. Secondly, the strategies of selecting the specific subject matter (physical
education) as a focus on the study should also being stated clearly in the
research. This is important in all research study which served a purpose of
helping the reader understand the concepts or theories developed in a specific
context.
Robinson and Torne (1988) stated that one
of the strategies to avoid bias in a qualitative research is to use a
consultant, advisor or research team to review the study process. In this
study, Kathy who was Bob’s colleagues for many years has being selected to be
the cross-checking participant in order to ensure the validity and
trustworthiness of the data. However, it would be more successful if the
researcher invites an advisor who has an independent view (who is not an
experienced physical education teacher) to determine the validity of the data
and process from an independent perspective.
DATA
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The researcher’s role is to collect data
based on his observations on the daily activities of the participant without
interfering with his lesson and behaviour, analyse artifact and documents,
stimulate recall using videotaped classes and conduct both formal and informal
interviews with the participant, students, teachers and participants.
Specific strategies employed to ensure data
trustworthiness included triangulation of methods, members checks disconfirming
case analyses and cultivating reactions from the case-study teacher to the
themes, categories and events to be included in the final report. Kathy, who
has been teaching physical education together with Bob in HHS was participated
in the cross check stories and events describe by the participant to ensure
validity.
The data analysis process involved
summarizing data into themes and categories using procedures recommended by
Miles and Huberman (1984), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1980).
After the process of data collection,
researcher has to process and analyze the data gathered to identify and
determine significant findings in relation to the research question. An initial
draft of the report was prepared by Bob stated his comments and reviews.
Additional revisions were then made based on the responses and reactions from
the teachers. The findings were brought back to Bob so that he could check the
accuracy of the data (reliability), and validate the findings of the report.
Eventually, the findings were brought to Kathy to check for reliability and to
validate the findings of the report.
The use of key informants and the constant
use of follow-up interviews to check the consistency of the responses and also
to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are triangulated.
The researcher attempted to verify the data
with secondary interviews to validate the statements made by Bob, using
personal such as Kathy. The cross checking interviews with Kathy somehow
reduces the observer’s bias and enhances the validity of the study. However,
there is a chance for the observer to be interpreting the events according to
his subjective understanding of the situation.
According to Leininger (1990),
transferability, recurrent patterning and saturating indicate consistency of
study conclusion, credibility, confirmability and meaning-in-context indicate
truth value. Although the data analyzing process of this study was systematic,
but the daily data collection from the researcher’s observation of Bob’s
classroom practices is subjective and could be affected by personal beliefs and
perception. Hence, confirmability of truth value in this study was not meet.
RESULTS
Inspired by Shulman’s (1987) seven
categories of teachers’ knowledge : subject matter, general pedagogical,
curriculum, pedagogical content, learners, contexts and purposes, the
researcher presented his findings based on the five categories that emerged
during the analysis of data.
Subject Matter
The content of Bob’s classes was described
and detailed in a curriculum guide he had compiled. Bob acquired new subject-
matter knowledge based upon these criteria (a) perceptions of his own
competence in teaching the subject, (b) personal interest in the subject
matter, (c) perceptions of student interest, (d) actual student demand as
demonstrated by elective class enrollments, (e) time investment necessary to
teach or prepare to teach the subject, (f) the novelty of the subject, and (g)
facility and equipment constraints.
Class Organisation and Operation
Like many teachers (West, 1975;Yinger,
1980), classroom order and control were predominant concerns for Bob. Bob
relied on practical rules and principles to guide classroom operation rather
than inflexible or absolute rules. His determination of being a good teacher
was heavily skewed towards organizational and operational concerns. Although he
had spent much time formulating, writing and explaining his operational
policies, the complex and fluid nature of his classes required constant
interpretation and reevaluation of the codes of operation and organization. Bob
perceived the ability to organise and operate a class is the fundamental and
critical responsibility of a teacher.
Teaching Behaviour
In terms of teaching behavior, Bob did not
actively pursue knowledge that directly affected his instructional practices. Years
of experiences have forged a mode of operation, a routine, which frames the
knowledge Bob imparts to his students. These procedures have been used for
years by Bob, therefore, he is more inclined to select new activities that fit
his mode of operation rather than looking for new ways to teach the subject
matter. Bob did not actively seek effective teaching strategies and he realized
its lacking in his repertoire of skills.
Pedagogical-Content Knowledge
Bob seeks curricular content that fits his
teaching style. In pedagogical practice, he teaches an activity in terms of its
essential skills by giving brief explanations and sometimes demonstrations,
then students practice these skills through drills and then to play the game
with the given rules. Content that could be incorporated into the existing
classroom routines and rituals was highly valued. Previous research reveals
that Bob is not alone in his regard for knowledge that is easily imported into
existing classroom practices (Alexander, Muir, & Chant, 1992; Elbaz, 1983)
External Conditions
These conditions include local regulations
and requirements that were imposed by the administration and school board as
well as regulations and laws handed down from state and federal agencies. The structure of the school provided
him no feedback on his teaching behavior, nor was there encouragement to
simulate greater students’ achievement. Bob
passively resisted school and state imperatives that ran counter to his
personal beliefs and his interpretation of the community moral standards.
DISCUSSION
The researcher has concluded that little
changes was evident in Bob. Little changed in the observable practices of Bob’s
day-to-day activities as a teacher and he became fairly predictable in his
course of action.” The changes and alternations he did make were neither
dramatic nor overtly visible. Bob’s professional knowledge appeared personal
and idiosyncratic ( Carter, 1990; Zeichner, Tabachnick, and Densmore, 1987).
Besides, Bob received limited motivation and appreciation to learn and develop
his profession. Years of experience have forged a mode of operation, a routine,
which frames the knowledge Bob imparts to his students.
The initial problem was to determine the
criteria used by an experience teacher in acquiring knowledge to teach. The
conclusion drawn by the researcher was that Bob had well developed set of
criteria to guide his acquisition of knowledge. Classroom order and operation
held the highest priority in Bob’s pedagogical knowledge. His acquisition of
new knowledge was to assimilate into his professional practice. As conclusion,
Bob’s time in service has made him well aware of who he is, what he does, why
it does it, and what knowledge is required for him to meet the demands as a
teacher in a public school.
REFERENCES
James Hiebert, Ronald Gallimore, and James W. Stigler ( 2002). A knowledge base for the Teaching
Profession: What would it look like and How Can We Get One?. Educational
Reseacher Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 3–15.
Bresler. L (1996). Ethical Issues in the Conduct and
Communication of Ethnographic Classroom Research. National Art Education Association.
Cheryl Forchuk and Jacqueline Roberts (
1993). How to Critique Qualitative Health Research Articles. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research.
Carter, K. (1990). Teachers’
knowledge and learning to teach. In
W.R. Houston (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 291 –
310). New York: Macmillan.
Goetz, J.P., &
LeCompte, M.D. (1984). Ethnography and
qualitative design in educational research. Orlando; Academic Press.
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