Research Critique

RESEARCH CRITIQUE

 

 

ABSTRACT

 

Purpose of the study is to review and evaluate the qualitative nature of the research “Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition of a Teacher’s Knowledge” by Paul G. Schempp.” The article is an interpretative case study to examine criteria used by an experienced teacher to acquire knowledge in his field of expertise. Experienced Physical Education teachers, Bob and Kathy are the key informants in this study. Data were collected in various methods of qualitative techniques included participant observation, artifact and document analysis, stimulated recall using videotaped classes, and interviews. Besides, other school personnel included students, teachers and administrators were also involved in this study. Specific strategies were employed in the process of analyzing data included triangulation of methods, member checks and constant use of follow up interviews in order to ensure the data trustworthiness. The data analysis process involved summarizing data into themes and categories using procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1980) took approximately one year to accomplish. Shulams’(1987) theory of knowledge base for teaching was used to describe the forms of knowledge Bob acquired in pursuit of his professional practice. In the final step, the researcher presented a copy of the report to the informant, Bob for his comments and reactions to ensure the accuracy of data (reliability) and validate the findings of the report.

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Twenty first century’s education system is being transformed by the dramatic technological revolution. Students are grown up in the rapidly changing media-saturated world. As a teacher who are responsible to facilitate the next generation, understanding and improving the skills of acquire knowledge is essential and crucial. The purpose of educational research is to provide descriptive, predictive, or explanative information with the goal of improving learning. This research topic is significant for educators who are responsible in molding our next generation by maintaining their profession.

Karl Popper (1972), described three worlds of knowledge: World 1, knowledge of physical and real-world objects and experiences; World 2, individuals’ knowledge and skills; and World 3, shared ideas treatable as public objects that can be stored and accumulated.

According to James Hiebert, Ronald Gallimore, and James W. Stigler in the study of “ A Knowledge base for teaching profession” ( 2002) , most American teachers live in Popper’s World 1 and 2, they interact with their students and create knowledge for themselves. But building a profession’s knowledge for teaching requires teachers live in World 3 that allows ideas for teaching being shared and examined publicly hence can be stored and accumulated to the next generation.

In this qualitative study, the informant, Bob has constructed a comfortable set of criteria to evaluate his daily classroom operation and selecting knowledge based on years of contact with many professional sources. These criteria formed a Screen through which all potential pedagogical knowledge passed upon his perception of the power and quality of its source.

 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 

Myriad amount of literature reviews is evident in this article. The researcher was able to make connections between the objectives and purpose of his paper with the appropriate selection of literatures. For instance, data analyzing involving themes and categories using procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), the construction of these categories was influenced by Shuman’s (1987) theory of knowledge base for teaching.

In analyzing the data, the researcher categorized knowledge acquisition into five categories included classroom organization and operation, teaching behavior, subject matter, pedagogical-content knowledge and external conditions. Relevant literature review were provided to support his study while discussing the above mentioned five categories including Lang and Burroughs-Lange (1994), Russell and Johnston(1988),Placek (1983), Wilson and Wineburg (1988) so on and so forth.

However, the researcher did not give any argument or disagreements in any literature being reviewed. Most of his literature reviews were merely to support his personal’s perspective throughout the study. Skepticism and bias may occur when a statement is made from single perspective without justification. The study would have been more comprehensive if he could discuss and reflect his insights more in depth related to his literature review.

 

METHODOLOGY

 

This is a year-long interpretive analytic case study project to observe a high school Physical Education teacher. The data were collected using variety of ethnographic techniques including observation of participant, recorded artifact and document analyses, stimulated recall using videotaped classes, and both formal and informal interviews. Ethnographic research involves the collection and analysis of data about an individual or group under natural conditions.

 

Spradley (1980) states that ethnography means “learning from people” rather than “studying people”. In this study, researcher recorded field notes during and after observation and summary statement was made off site after each day of data collection in this qualitative study. The data collection process began 2 days before the start of school and ended before the Christmas break.  The researcher was present at the school on a daily basis on the first month of the study and made field trips twice on average after that. On the other hand, field notes were recorded during and after observation and a summary statement was made off site after each day of data collection. Besides that, the researcher used specific strategies such as triangulation methods and member checks to ensure data trustworthiness.

In this study, the site was selected due to its reputation which received an educational excellence award from the United States Department of Education two years before the study. Hillcrest High School has approximately 470 students. The school was awarded an educational excellence from the United States Department of Education two years before the study.

According to Cheryl Forchuk and Jacqueline Roberts (1992), researcher must mention how the study sites were determined and describe the selection of participants and their levels of participation. There is no information given by the research on the strategies of selecting the site and what are the specific criteria to select HHS school as the setting for his study.

Cobb and Hagemaster (1987) stated that particular informants (e.g. experienced teacher) can be purposely included for their relevant knowledge or experience in a qualitative research, but these must be described in detail. The participant (Bob) who has 14 years experiences in physical education at Hillcrest High School was being selected in this study but no information given by the researcher on the method and process of selection. Secondly, the strategies of selecting the specific subject matter (physical education) as a focus on the study should also being stated clearly in the research. This is important in all research study which served a purpose of helping the reader understand the concepts or theories developed in a specific context.

Robinson and Torne (1988) stated that one of the strategies to avoid bias in a qualitative research is to use a consultant, advisor or research team to review the study process. In this study, Kathy who was Bob’s colleagues for many years has being selected to be the cross-checking participant in order to ensure the validity and trustworthiness of the data. However, it would be more successful if the researcher invites an advisor who has an independent view (who is not an experienced physical education teacher) to determine the validity of the data and process from an independent perspective.

 

 

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The researcher’s role is to collect data based on his observations on the daily activities of the participant without interfering with his lesson and behaviour, analyse artifact and documents, stimulate recall using videotaped classes and conduct both formal and informal interviews with the participant, students, teachers and participants.

Specific strategies employed to ensure data trustworthiness included triangulation of methods, members checks disconfirming case analyses and cultivating reactions from the case-study teacher to the themes, categories and events to be included in the final report. Kathy, who has been teaching physical education together with Bob in HHS was participated in the cross check stories and events describe by the participant to ensure validity.

The data analysis process involved summarizing data into themes and categories using procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1980).

After the process of data collection, researcher has to process and analyze the data gathered to identify and determine significant findings in relation to the research question. An initial draft of the report was prepared by Bob stated his comments and reviews. Additional revisions were then made based on the responses and reactions from the teachers. The findings were brought back to Bob so that he could check the accuracy of the data (reliability), and validate the findings of the report. Eventually, the findings were brought to Kathy to check for reliability and to validate the findings of the report.

The use of key informants and the constant use of follow-up interviews to check the consistency of the responses and also to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are triangulated.

The researcher attempted to verify the data with secondary interviews to validate the statements made by Bob, using personal such as Kathy. The cross checking interviews with Kathy somehow reduces the observer’s bias and enhances the validity of the study. However, there is a chance for the observer to be interpreting the events according to his subjective understanding of the situation.

According to Leininger (1990), transferability, recurrent patterning and saturating indicate consistency of study conclusion, credibility, confirmability and meaning-in-context indicate truth value. Although the data analyzing process of this study was systematic, but the daily data collection from the researcher’s observation of Bob’s classroom practices is subjective and could be affected by personal beliefs and perception. Hence, confirmability of truth value in this study was not met.

 

 

RESULTS

Inspired by Shulman’s (1987) seven categories of teachers’ knowledge : subject matter, general pedagogical, curriculum, pedagogical content, learners, contexts and purposes, the researcher presented his findings based on the five categories that emerged during the analysis of data.

 

Subject Matter

The content of Bob’s classes was described and detailed in a curriculum guide he had compiled. Bob acquired new subject- matter knowledge based upon these criteria (a) perceptions of his own competence in teaching the subject, (b) personal interest in the subject matter, (c) perceptions of student interest, (d) actual student demand as demonstrated by elective class enrollments, (e) time investment necessary to teach or prepare to teach the subject, (f) the novelty of the subject, and (g) facility and equipment constraints.

 

Class Organisation and Operation

Like many teachers (West, 1975;Yinger, 1980), classroom order and control were predominant concerns for Bob. Bob relied on practical rules and principles to guide classroom operation rather than inflexible or absolute rules. His determination of being a good teacher was heavily skewed towards organizational and operational concerns. Although he had spent much time formulating, writing and explaining his operational policies, the complex and fluid nature of his classes required constant interpretation and reevaluation of the codes of operation and organization. Bob perceived the ability to organise and operate a class is the fundamental and critical responsibility of a teacher.

 

Teaching Behaviour

In terms of teaching behavior, Bob did not actively pursue knowledge that directly affected his instructional practices. Years of experiences have forged a mode of operation, a routine, which frames the knowledge Bob imparts to his students. These procedures have been used for years by Bob, therefore, he is more inclined to select new activities that fit his mode of operation rather than looking for new ways to teach the subject matter. Bob did not actively seek effective teaching strategies and he realized its lacking in his repertoire of skills.

Pedagogical-Content Knowledge

Bob seeks curricular content that fits his teaching style. In pedagogical practice, he teaches an activity in terms of its essential skills by giving brief explanations and sometimes demonstrations, then students practice these skills through drills and then to play the game with the given rules. Content that could be incorporated into the existing classroom routines and rituals was highly valued. Previous research reveals that Bob is not alone in his regard for knowledge that is easily imported into existing classroom practices (Alexander, Muir, & Chant, 1992; Elbaz, 1983)

 

External Conditions

These conditions include local regulations and requirements that were imposed by the administration and school board as well as regulations and laws handed down from state and federal agencies. The structure of the school provided him no feedback on his teaching behavior, nor was there encouragement to simulate greater students’ achievement. Bob passively resisted school and state imperatives that ran counter to his personal beliefs and his interpretation of the community moral standards.

 

DISCUSSION

The researcher has concluded that little changes was evident in Bob. Little changed in the observable practices of Bob’s day-to-day activities as a teacher and he became fairly predictable in his course of action.” The changes and alternations he did make were neither dramatic nor overtly visible. Bob’s professional knowledge appeared personal and idiosyncratic ( Carter, 1990; Zeichner, Tabachnick, and Densmore, 1987). Besides, Bob received limited motivation and appreciation to learn and develop his profession. Years of experience have forged a mode of operation, a routine, which frames the knowledge Bob imparts to his students.

 

The initial problem was to determine the criteria used by an experience teacher in acquiring knowledge to teach. The conclusion drawn by the researcher was that Bob had well developed set of criteria to guide his acquisition of knowledge. Classroom order and operation held the highest priority in Bob’s pedagogical knowledge. His acquisition of new knowledge was to assimilate into his professional practice. As conclusion, Bob’s time in service has made him well aware of who he is, what he does, why it does it, and what knowledge is required for him to meet the demands as a teacher in a public school.

 

 

REFERENCES

 

James Hiebert, Ronald Gallimore, and James W. Stigler ( 2002). A knowledge base for the Teaching Profession: What would it look like and How Can We Get One?. Educational Reseacher Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 3–15.

 

Bresler. L (1996).  Ethical Issues in the Conduct and Communication of Ethnographic Classroom Research.  National Art Education Association.

 

Cheryl Forchuk and Jacqueline Roberts ( 1993). How to Critique Qualitative Health Research Articles. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research.

 

Carter, K. (1990).  Teachers’ knowledge and learning to teach.  In W.R. Houston (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 291 – 310).  New York: Macmillan.

 

Goetz, J.P., & LeCompte, M.D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research.  Orlando; Academic Press.